Science, Technology & Innovation Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Science, Technology & Innovation Systems - Essay Example In places where there is no sufficient level of wind, the wind turbine industry certainly cannot operate efficiently and effectively. It requires strong level of wind in order to generate enough amount of electricity from wind energy. Electricity is very important in the society particularly in industries, households and every establishment. This means that electricity is an integral part of every political, social, legal, technological, economic and environmental aspect of the society. This is the reason why every nation tries to come up with the right level or amount of supply of electricity for everyone. Around 21.40 percent of electricity in Denmark is derived from wind. Compared this from the United States and other countries in Europe, this is relatively higher and only implies that Denmark has remarkably relied heavily on the wind-turbine industry in its electricity generation aside from other energy source. Certainly there are some important reasons why the wind-turbine indus try in Denmark became so strong. It is the main point of this paper to present some of the factors that contribute greatly to the success of wind-turbine industry in Denmark. ... Furthermore, the proponent includes the characteristics of the innovation system and the corresponding impacts on other sectors and technologies. Main actors, linkages, institutions The world is currently faced with the issue of global warming which is said to be as an upshot of human’s economic activities over the long span of time. What was the most intriguing is the issue about the higher amount of greenhouse gases emitted by electricity generation through fossil-fuel based of generating electricity. In Table 1, it is shown that different countries in Europe have substantially contributed higher amount of greenhouse gases emission due to on-going economic activity. However, the good news is that most of the fossil-fuel based of generating electricity can be replaceable by other alternative energy source. These fossil-fuel based of generating electricity can be replaceable by wind as shown in Table 2. Shown in Table 3 is the specific information about the percentage of elect ricity produced out from wind energy in the United States, Denmark and other countries in Europe. Table 1. Specific average emissions (CO2, SO2, NO2) from fossil fuel-based electricity generation in the different EU-27 Member States in 2007 (European Wind Energy Association, 2009) Table 2. Fossil fuel-based electricity generation replaceable/avoidable by wind (and other renewable electricity generation technologies) in the EU-27 Member States in 2007 (European Wind Energy Association, 2009) Table 3. Percent of Total Electricity Derived from Wind in 2006 (Asplund, 2008) The European Wind Energy Association is very particular with sustainability and eradication of factors that slowly affect the environment in particular. The

Key Practices of Performance Management Essay Example for Free

Key Practices of Performance Management Essay The requirement for effective performance management: The performance management acts as a key measure to ensure that the goals and objectives are being consistently met that too in an effective and efficient manner. The management of performance focuses on the performance of the overall enterprise, all departments, employees and even the products or services. However, it does not just stop here as with performance management companies can align their resources, systems and employees which will help them attain their objectives and priorities. The goals of performance management programs: Only when the employee and the system align with one another can they ensure the delivery of strategic and operational goals. Some skeptics argue that there exists a relation between the use of performance management programs or software with improved organizational results. When considering the public sector, the performance managers changes from negative to positive which suggests that the difference in the characteristics of the system, and the different context that they are implemented play an important role in success or failure of the performance management. Sometimes using an integrated software rather than a spreadsheet based recording system will help in delivering a significant return of investments through the range of direct and indirect sales benefits. Measuring the operational efficiency will help in unlocking the latent potential of the employees that work. The benefits will include everything from the direct financial gain to a motivated workforce to the improved management. For the financial gains, it will grow sales, stop the overrunning of projects, and align the enterprise in direct manner to the CEO’s objectives. For the motivated workforce, it simply means optimization of incentive plans that defines the objective even for the over achievement and not for just the business as usual. Lastly, in the improved management control, the employees become more flexible and open to the management needs. They also display data relationships and helps audit to comply with the legislative requirement. Lastly, the process enables careful documentation and scenario planning. Types of performance management implementation Erica Olsen noted that in many businesses, even the ones with well made plans actually failed to implement appropriate strategy. For most, the issue lay in the ineffective management of the employees even with a business plan in place. Of course, they have conducted the necessary survey and collected the data, and also ensured management retreats to decide their organizational direction, but even with an expensive software in place, their plan can fail. Most of the time, their performance management and appraisals overlap and three types have been so far identified: Long cycle performance management: Usually done on a annual or a biannual or quarterly basis, from implementing this management, this the area that has received the most attention. These techniques predate the use of computers and therefore do not need any expensive software. Short cycle management performance: This overlaps with the principles of the agile software development which is mainly done on a week, monthly or bi-weekly basis. Usually this kind is industry specific. Reference: http://classof1.com/homework-help/human-resource-management-homework-help

A Comparison of Themes of Amy Tans Kitchen Gods Wife and Joy Luck Clu

Similar Themes in  of Kitchen God's Wife and Joy Luck Club       Amy Tan's two novels, The Kitchen God's Wife and The Joy Luck Club, represent a unique voice that is rarely heard in literature. Tan is a Chinese-American woman who tells stories of old China that are rich in history and culture. Both novels have at least one strong central female character who is trying to inform her daughter about their Chinese heritage and familial roots.    The plot ofThe Joy Luck Club displays this idea in each woman's story. The older generation is comprised of four women: Suyuan Woo, An-Mei Hsu, Lindo Jong, and Ying-Ying St. Clair. They relate their stories to their daughters, hoping to retain some of their rich histories and old lifestyles in China. Joy Luck is centered around Suyuan Woo's daughter, June, who is dealing with the death of her mother. June takes her mother's place at the mah-jong table, where she is told that she must learn about her mother's life in China. The one thing June knows of her mother's life in China is the story of her abandoned twin babies. The members of t...

Leadership philosophies

There are many types of leadership philosophies that all require a clearness of purpose to be successful. Their difference lies in their approach to dealing with the subject of leadership and followership. It is essential to define leadership philosophy first before engaging in a long discussion on the types that comprise it. So what is exactly a leadership philosophy? Encarta defines philosophy as 1. Examination of basic concepts: the branch of knowledge or academic study devoted to the systematic examination of basic concepts such as truth, existence, reality, causality, and freedom2. School of thought: a particular system of thought or doctrine 3. Guiding or underlying principles: a set of basic principles or concepts underlying a particular sphere of knowledge 4. Set of beliefs or aims: a precept, or set of precepts, beliefs, principles, or aims, underlying somebody’s practice or conduct Leadership philosophy is therefore based on a set of ideas and beliefs that set the ex ample to how many people experience their lives or envision their future. Leadership philosophy is an understanding combined with a purpose for the aim of advancing the general good.Leaders use different and various philosophies to motivate their followers whether those are citizens or employees. The type of philosophy adopted by a leader usually depends on the outcomes desired. For instance, a common type of leadership philosophy adopted by business employers is enlightened philosophy where the ideas of the employees themselves are used to change, improve and advance the organization. The leader assumes the role of the guide and inquires into what people would like to see within the organization thereby effectively involving them in the process and making them feel useful.The employees or followers give their opinion, suggest the ideas they would like to see in reality coming out and compose a plan through which to achieve that. This all is done under the directive leadership of a person who assumes the role of counselor, advisor and guide without imposing his views on the process and thereby securing both the involvement of the followers as well as their productive happiness since they would feel more useful when they can contribute to improving their lives with their ideas.Not all philosophies work or achieve the desired effect. One of the less successful philosophies, in contrast to the successful enlightening type of leadership philosophy that has already been mentioned, is called the â€Å"groupthink†. It is very similar to the enlightening philosophy where the people are supported to give their opinion and share their ideas. However what makes the groupthink less desirable as a leadership philosophy is that it mainly supports the person who develops the idea but does not examine the idea in itself.(Baird) As a consequence of this, bad policies are often made official since the leader's role was limited to supporting instead of both supporting and criticizing the ideas that were developed. It is therefore essential that a leader combines between the role of guide and critique in an open discussion of ideas exchange to both secure the inclusion of only good ideas as well as keep the atmosphere competitive and fresh which would not happen if all ideas are passed.The next type of leadership philosophy to be examined is called the autocratic leadership and it is a style that is, as the name might suggest, full of tyranny and despotism which makes it thus very similar to dictatorship and completely different from the two types of leadership styles that have been mentioned so far and that are more democratic in nature. The autocratic leadership style is mainly seen in governments just like the enlightening leadership philosophy is mainly applied in businesses.The autocratic style involves more negative than positive sides and that is mainly because the type of rule associated with it is one of complete control and lack of freedom which goes against human's most basic need and essential human aspect. Though this style is more likely to be found in governments businesses do have tyrants themselves. For instance a CEO may fire any employee who does not agree with him which connotes lack of diversity and a suffocated repressed atmosphere where the worker or citizen is not able to achieve his true potential.The next example in leadership philosophy is the servant style of leading others. While most leaders tend to lead others with the assumption that that requires a certain traditional superior attitude, experience and research have proven that the inclusion of the followers in the process is more likely to produce the desired results. A more humble and less arrogant attitude is therefore more appreciated from the leader himself. It is understandable and logical to think of leaders as little bit over the top figures who are in a way part of the group but still above it.But as stated, this approach might not produ ce the best environment for all and therefore a servant leadership style is the best solution for the problem. Servant leadership opposes autocratic leadership and as has been exemplified autocratic leadership usually fails. Paul McDaniel in his article How to Practice Servant Leadership illustrates the role of the servant leader very clearly and eloquently in the following words A servant leader acts as a steward to the organization's financial, human, and other resources.Servant Leadership emphasizes trust, empathy, collaboration, and the ethical use of power. At the heart of servant leadership, the individual leader of an organization is a servant first. He or she makes a conscious decision to lead in order to better serve others, not to increase his or her own power. The servant leader's objective is to enhance the growth of individuals in the organization and increase teamwork and personal involvement. It is interesting to observe these different types of leadership and to also reflect on what makes one more successful than another.In the case of servant leadership versus autocratic leadership the leader assumes the role of a humble servant to the others in the group thereby getting closer to them and assuring them that what matters is the advancement of the goals and the achievement of their purpose. After all true leadership emerges from the true desire to help others. Through becoming more familiar with the group one assures that positive change is more assured as he can allocate the different tasks in a more effective manner to those who can perform them best.It also guarantees the trust of the follower in the leader when the latter's personality and agenda are better understood. Servant leadership is a way through which to foster trust into each other and creates an environment where the voice of every member counts which makes a joyful working and living environment more possible. Enlightening, autocratic and servant leadership have been mentioned s o far. The next types of leadership philosophy that deserve a closer inspection are the ethical leadership†¦..and the collective leadership. The latter is hard to define since it is still a relatively new area which makes and many people have different theories about it. Collective leadership has been defined by Alain Gauthier as Co-leadership that embraces the diversity of people and perspectives and frees up self-initiative and collective intelligence. When practiced across sectors, it creates the conditions for societal learning and innovation through an increased sense of interdependence and a deeper trust in self-organization.It is commonly agreed that it incorporates cultural and technological resources in a manner that allows people to work together better for the advancement of the community's prosperity. Collective leadership is only possible when the members of a group have formed a closer bond with each other and therefore can work better together. Collectivity after all is more about the â€Å"we† than the â€Å"I†. Ethical Leadership is when the leader is very familiar with the essential values of his convictions and has the vision and courage to live up to them and include them in his work and realization of his goals.Ethical leadership combines between the inner values and beliefs of the leader in question and the behavior and external conditions of the outside world. People who want to make a difference need to combine between their vision, and all that comes along with it in terms of integrity and clearness of purpose, and their commitment to do well and make a difference. Ethical leadership assumes that only through embracing the inner journey one can really express and realize the outer one. To understand what makes a person a leader it is essential to first grasp what differentiates him from a follower.A person does not need to be a hero to be a leader. Leadership does not come in one form or type and different type of pe ople suit different forms of leadership. Leadership does not have a gender requirement. Men and women can both lead. The secret lies in convincing others of your ability to realize their dreams and advance the common good. As stated leadership comes in many forms just like the leader does. People naturally differ in how they define the word in itself and nobody can say that their vision is right or wrong since the issue is broad and left to different interpretations.Followers naturally expect leaders to show them things and set for them an example. They expect the leader to take care of their needs and therefore it follows that being a leader is neither an easy job nor one that anyone can conduct regarding the many responsibilities attached to it. Leadership philosophies are based on the vision and experiences of the leader. Leadership is never stagnant as it is always a subject of continues development depending on the circumstances and the different ideas the leader himself might develop over time.Leadership philosophy is therefore a subject of continues growth regarding its attachment to the human nature who is never stagnant and always seeks change and new ideas. Many of the leadership philosophies that are practiced nowadays were used by the Marine Corps and involve â€Å"Justice, judgment, dependability, initiative, decisiveness, integrity, loyalty and enthusiasm†(Leadership Philosophies). Each of these terms will be given a ore thoughtful explanation in the following regarding the importance of each word in defining the various leadership philosophies and understanding them.Justice makes an individual more consistent and better valued. It makes the leader avoid criticism of favoritism and therefore decreases the tension in the group. The ability to use judgment to avoid being accused of favoring one person above the other is therefore very important for a leader. Dependability on the other hand is â€Å"is the willing and voluntary support of th e policies and orders of the chain of command† (Wright, 1984/2002). Being dependable means being reliable and therefore trustworthy which are obviously great and essential characteristic in a leader.Along with this goes initiative that shows enthusiasm and sets the example. A good leader needs to always set the right and best example to inspire the followers. (Leadership Philosophies) Decisiveness shows the ability to make a decision and therefore the ability to lead. This again increases the trust of the group in the leader and secures success. Loyalty on the other hand shows commitment to the group and its goals and enhances the trust of the people in the leader. It shows integrity and honesty and these are essential traits of a good leadership philosophy.Leadership philosophies are very different but at the core they have the same purpose in mind which is leading. Leaders are thus guided by their leadership philosophy. The question that might arise in relevance to the diffe rent types of leadership is whether it is better as a leader to be feared or loved. As has been discussed previously autocratic leadership is less successful than the enlightening or servant form of leadership. However, Harvard professor Scott Snook provides a different interpretation of the issue.He illustrates through two examples that different leadership styles do not necessarily result in the success of one above the other. He argues that leadership is essentially influenced by human nature and therefore by the philosophy of the person in charge. Though different in approach both leaders still have the same vision which is success and achievement of goals. He provides the following two examples to enhance this theory further. Bobby Knight Bobby Knight, also known as â€Å"The General,† is the head coach at Texas Tech University.He’s a fiery, in-your-face taskmaster who leads through discipline and intimidation, which some critics say goes too far. Knight was fired from a long career at Indiana University for grabbing a student, and prior to that he was filmed clutching one of his own players by the neck. And then there was the infamous incident during a game when Knight tossed a folding chair across the court to protest a referee’s call. Mike Krzyzewski Mike Krzyzewski, also known as Coach K, leads the men’s basketball program at Duke University.Instead of fear, Krzyzewski relies heavily on positive reinforcement, open and warm communication, and caring support. For Coach K, â€Å"It’s about the heart, it’s about family, it’s about seeing the good in people and bringing the most out of them,† says Snook. (Ambler) Both coaches achieved desirable results with their teams despite the different leadership philosophies they believed in. To be successful in one of these types of leadership it is however essential to be fully convinced of it being the right style for you.Ones actions have to be in harmony w ith one's words and that is only guaranteed if the leader knows where he stands. The success of a leadership philosophy therefore depends on the leader's full awareness and adherence to it which is the only way through which to guarantee the right implementation of it. Leadership is about inspiring others. This leads the discussion to creative leadership where leaders search for opportunities and introduce change through discovering them.Creative leadership is about solving problems no matter what they are as it evolves around finding new and creative methods to approach things. Creative leadership inspires people to do great things and encourages them to always improve their performance and keep their attitude at all times positive and forward-looking. People perform the required task for a manager but an inspirational leader makes them do their entire best and put all their effort in, not only for financial reasons but because they feel inspired. The following picture illustrates the working dimension of inspirational or creative leadership.

Julius Caesar: Politically Correct or Politically Corrupt?

Julius Caesar: Politically Correct or Politically Corrupt? Morality: most commonly defined as a set of ideas developed in each individual’s head to decide whether something is wrong or right. On the smallest scale of moral code, being that of each individual, there are great variations. To someone who lives the life of a vegan, it is morally wrong to eat meat, dairy, or be involved with any products what-so-ever derived from an animal. On the other hand, to someone who does eat meat this is all perfectly okay. While this may not seem like a major moral conflict, it actually is because whether you agree or disagree with either of the two greatly affects your everyday life. If you take moral code to a larger scale, saying that of a whole society, there is a greater common trend of certain ideas. Under good morals: helping others, working hard, sharing, loyalty, and honesty. Under bad morals: stealing, lying, jealousy, hurting others, betrayal and revenge. Since moral ideals can differ from one person to the next, then logically they could change from each generation or time period to the next. So, how is the loss of morality within the political sphere of Julius Caesar to be judged? By today’s morals, or by those of its time period? Since no writer of today could possibly know what exactly was going through Shakespeare’s head at the time he wrote this play, then no one could possibly fully understand what was considered moral within this play or not. Ultimately, one such writer would be forced to use morals that are based within modern times. Within the play, Julius Caesar, the goal of the major political figures was deemed honorable by some but not by others thus causing a greater focus on their corrupt reasoning and the loss of morality within the political sphere of this play. Jealousy: the mental instability brought upon oneself by resentment or fear of another’s good fortune leading to unfaithfulness. By this definition, jealousy would be considered morally wrong. Cassius’s contribution to the loss of morality within the politics of this play is shown through his jealousy of Caesar. Cassius does not see Caesar as other people see him. Many others see Caesar as a great, strong, noble, and god-like leader. Cassius believes Caesar is no greater than him, much weaker, and far less noble and deserving of all the attention and respect that is given to him. Seeing Caesar as a man just like the other men of the senate, Cassius believes that more power and influence should be given to the others. He also believes that if Caesar were to become king, they would be stripped of what little power they do have. Cassius’ jealousy of Caesar’s greater reputation is shown especially when he says this in reference to Caesar, â€Å"Alas, it cried, ‘Give me some drink, Titinius,' as a sick girl. Ye gods! It doth amaze me a man of such a feeble temper should so get the start of the majestic world and bear the palm alone. † (Shakespeare, I, ii, 127-130) Cassius also expresses jealousy and resentment towards Caesar when he states, â€Å"Did I the tired Caesar- and this man is now become a god, and Cassius is a wretched creature, and must bend his body if Caesar carelessly but nod on him. (I, ii, 115-118) No political atmosphere can survive when there is such jealousy among its leaders. This morally corrupted mentality of ‘coveting thy neighbor’ is what leads to Cassius’ aid in planning and seeing through the plan of assassinating Julius Caesar. Disloyalty and betrayal: the violation of allegiance or trust. These are another couple characteristics that a re deemed immoral. Through these traits, Brutus aids in the loss of morality within the politics of this play. Unlike Cassius though, Brutus actually loves Caesar. This fact is blatantly obvious when Cassius questions him and Brutus responds in reference to Caesar, â€Å"I would not, Cassius; yet I love him well. † (I, ii, 88) Despite this love for his friend, Brutus still agrees to join the other conspirators and assassinate Caesar. What makes this betrayal so much worse, in addition to the fact that Brutus allows himself to be persuaded by others, is that he knows just how very wrong it is and still goes through with the plan. Right up to the very end there was a great part of Brutus with which this plan did not sit well. His love for Caesar is still evident as he becomes a nervous wreck and very worrisome prior to the assassination. On the night before the ides of March, in response to his wife, Portia, Brutus says,† You are my true and honourable wife, As dear to me as are the ruddy drops that visit my sad heart. † (II, i, 288-291) It’s obvious that Brutus can tell what he is doing is wrong, yet he still follows through. As justification to the people of Rome, Brutus states, â€Å"If then that friend demand why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer-not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. † (III, ii, 17-19) Even though he gives a ‘for the greater good’ explanation, this does not make his morals any less corrupt. If the politicians can’t count on each other’s loyalty, then any and every sense of order within a government is going to fall apart. Revenge: to punish another for a wrong doing in a vindictive spirit. Yet another one of the more commonly deemed immoral personality traits. It was by this state of mind and his abuse of power that Marc Antony contributed the loss of morality within the political aspects of this play. Being a great admirer and friend of Caesar, Antony sought out revenge upon the conspirators after learning of the assassination. By making his eulogy more emotionally charged and getting the opportunity to speak after Brutus, Antony was able to uproot what his pier said and get the revenge he was seeking. Throughout his speech, Marc Antony described Caesar’s wounds in ways such as, â€Å"Look, in this place ran Cassius' dagger through. See what a rent the envious Casca made. Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb’d. † (III, ii, 176-178) This inspired grief and anger within the Roman people that was then pointed directly at the conspirators. Until the end of the play, Antony is continuously seeking revenge and he does obtain the ultimate revenge when both of the conspirators, Brutus and Cassius, die. This strong desire for revenge is masked to look like justice for the assassination of a great leader, but is it really? In the end, there is no benefit. Yes, Caesar’s death has been avenged but all the great political minds that could have taken his place after his assassination have also been killed and the couple left have been even more corrupted after going through this whole ordeal. Now those who are in charge and not accustomed to such a position of power are morally corrupting the political sphere even more. For example, Marc Antony says, â€Å"He shall not live. Look, with a spot I damn him† (IV, i, 7). This is pretty much seen as tyranny which is what was trying to be avoided from the beginning. The fixation on the corruption of these great men within the plot shows the tragedy of lost morality in the political sphere of this play, Julius Caesar. Each character beginning the story a better person that how they finish. Starting out as a respectable political leader and ending up an exiled trader who eventually dies. Beginning as one of the more beloved friends, only to become a despised enemy that ultimately kills himself. Built up into a strong government then having it crumble into pieces. The only way any one person or system could sue come to such a low level after being so high is by being morally and inwardly corrupt.

Free Essays on Gandolf In The Lord Of The Rings

Geoffrey Chaucer began the Canterbury tales in 1387. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories set within a framing story of a pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral, the shrine of Saint Thomas a Becket. The poet joins a band of pilgrims, vividly described in the General Prologue, who assemble at the Tabard Inn outside London for the journey to Canterbury. There were approximately 30 pilgrims going to the shrine of Saint Thomas a Becket. These pilgrims ranged anywhere from a knight, a miller, to a priest. Each pilgrim was supposed to tell 3 to 4 tales, Chaucer only wrote 22 tales. The two tales that will be compared and contrasted in this paper are the Knight’s tale and the Miller’s tale. When the two tales are compared and contrasted we will be looking at the characters, the theme, and the different endings of each tale. In the Knight’s tale, a great conqueror and duke named Theseus ruled the city of Athens. Theseus conquers Thebes, but finds two wounded enemy soldiers lying on the battlefield, nearing death. Rather than kill them, he mercifully heals the Theban soldiers' injuries, but condemns them to a life of imprisonment in a tower in Athens. The prisoners, named Palamon and Arcite, are cousins and sworn brothers. Both live in the prison tower for several years. They both fall in love with a woman named Emeyle. They argue over her but realize that they will never get out of the prison they are in. One day, a duke named Perotheus, friend both to Theseus and Arcite, petitions for Arcite's freedom. Theseus agrees to let Arcite go. Arcite returns to Thebes jealous at Palamon because he can still see Emeyle everyday, and Palamon is scared that Arcite will try and take Athens by force to have Emeyle. Arcite returns to Athens to be closer to his beloved. He enters the city disguised so t hat he cannot be recognized. Arcite takes on a job as a page in Emelye's chamber under the pseudonym Philostrate. This puts hi... Free Essays on Gandolf In The Lord Of The Rings Free Essays on Gandolf In The Lord Of The Rings Geoffrey Chaucer began the Canterbury tales in 1387. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories set within a framing story of a pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral, the shrine of Saint Thomas a Becket. The poet joins a band of pilgrims, vividly described in the General Prologue, who assemble at the Tabard Inn outside London for the journey to Canterbury. There were approximately 30 pilgrims going to the shrine of Saint Thomas a Becket. These pilgrims ranged anywhere from a knight, a miller, to a priest. Each pilgrim was supposed to tell 3 to 4 tales, Chaucer only wrote 22 tales. The two tales that will be compared and contrasted in this paper are the Knight’s tale and the Miller’s tale. When the two tales are compared and contrasted we will be looking at the characters, the theme, and the different endings of each tale. In the Knight’s tale, a great conqueror and duke named Theseus ruled the city of Athens. Theseus conquers Thebes, but finds two wounded enemy soldiers lying on the battlefield, nearing death. Rather than kill them, he mercifully heals the Theban soldiers' injuries, but condemns them to a life of imprisonment in a tower in Athens. The prisoners, named Palamon and Arcite, are cousins and sworn brothers. Both live in the prison tower for several years. They both fall in love with a woman named Emeyle. They argue over her but realize that they will never get out of the prison they are in. One day, a duke named Perotheus, friend both to Theseus and Arcite, petitions for Arcite's freedom. Theseus agrees to let Arcite go. Arcite returns to Thebes jealous at Palamon because he can still see Emeyle everyday, and Palamon is scared that Arcite will try and take Athens by force to have Emeyle. Arcite returns to Athens to be closer to his beloved. He enters the city disguised so t hat he cannot be recognized. Arcite takes on a job as a page in Emelye's chamber under the pseudonym Philostrate. This puts hi...

Prostitution the uncontrolalble Vise misc essays

Prostitution the uncontrolalble Vise misc essays There are women who search for love, and there are those that search for money. Today, the term woman simply denotes ones sex. It does not define her character, morals and values, or even her profession. However, this was not always the case. At the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century, during the Progressive Era, there was a drive for reform. Various social problems became targets for investigation and intervention: child labour, juvenile delinquency, corruption in city government and police departments, and prostitution. These things were newly discovered social problems; the only differences during this period were the new assumptions, strategies, and expectations of a broad organization of activists. Progressive reform actively decided to take more of a role in regulating the social welfare of its citizens, and those private and public spheres of activity could not be disentangled. Prostitution was an issue that underscored the relationship between home life and street life, wages of sin and low wages of women worker s, double sexual standards and transmission of venereal disease. The late nineteenth century response to prostitution revealed the competing ideologies within Progressive reform activity over social justice and social control. Most attempts to deal with prostitution have consisted almost exclusively of more or less vigorous attempts to suppress it altogether by forcing the closing of brothels, and by increased police activities against individual prostitutes and against those individual places, such as taverns, where prostitutes frequently solicit. This paper seeks to prove that the reformers were unable to stamp out prostitution during the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century for a variety of factors. First, I will look at why women in the late nineteenth, and early twen...

Vocab In Context Questions and Strategies for ACT Reading

Vocab In Context Questions and Strategies for ACT Reading SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What exactly are vocab in context questions, and what are the best ways to approach answering them? In this article, I'll start by going over the basics of what vocab in context questions are, then segue into an in-depth discussion of each of the two types (complete with examples). Finally, I'll wrap it up by suggesting strategies to use when tackling these types of questions. feature image credit: 7dc_b188407-zuleikha-reading by Wolfgang Lonien used under CC BY-SA 2.0/Cropped from original. What Are Vocab In Context Questions? Vocabulary in context questions are the questions on ACT Reading that question you directly about vocabulary in the context of a paragraph. While having vocab knowledge can help you with other types of questions, for the purposes of this article I've focused on the types of questions where knowing vocabulary is essential to being able to get the right answer. From my reviewing of dozens ofofficial ACT practice tests, I've come to the conclusion that there are two types of ways the ACT Reading will question you on vocabulary: Based on how the word is used in the passage, what does that word mean? How would you sum up the meaning of a few lines or a paragraph, using one word as your answer? Read on for a more in-depth look at each of these types of vocab in context questions. Question Type 1: What’s The Meaning Of The Word In Context? These questions are probably among the most straightforward of all the ACT Reading questions. I like to think of them as asking â€Å"Here’s the word – what’s the definition?† Just because the questions are straightforward doesn’t mean that they can't be tricky, but the way the questions are phrased themselves are pretty simple. In fact, they are almost always asked in the following way: As it is used in line [number], the word [X] most nearly means... Or, to give a concrete example: As it is used in line 42, the word howled most nearly means†¦ Why does the ACT always use the phrase "most nearly," rather than just straight up asking "what does this word mean?" I believe there are two reasons: the phrase is designed to trick you into picking an answer that kind of works (after all, howled only has to NEARLY mean the answer choice, right?) it's the ACT’s way of covering its butt (nope, you can't just pick AN answer that works, you have to pick the BEST answer out of the available choices). Most often, these "Here's the word, what's the definition?" questions are about words that have multiple meanings. Since the ACT wants to trick you into rushing into thinking you know the answer, the test often will include an answer choice that is accurate for SOME definition of the word, just not the way it’s used in the passage. Here’s an example, taken verbatim from an official ACT practice test. Off the top of my head, the word read can be used to mean any of the answers, with the possible exception of choice C. In order to figure out which way read is being used in line 45, you'll have to go back to the passage. The source sentence is as follows: â€Å"Scientists determine an eel’s age using a microscope to read the growth rings of its otolith – a small, hard calcium deposit at the base of its skull.† (lines 44-47; italics mine) So how would you solve this question? First, rephrase the word or phrase in questionto make answering the question easier: â€Å"Scientists figure out how old an eel is using a microscope to look at and decipher the growth rings on the thing.† As you can see, the rephrasing does not have to be super elegant, just accurate. Next, substitute answers into your rephrased sentence – for this question, only â€Å"observe† makes sense (Scientists figure out how old an eel is using a microscope to observe the growth rings on the thing). Want another example? Not a problem! Here’s a trickier example I’ve modified from an ACTual ACT (I could only hold out on that wordplay for so long). Practice Example A: â€Å"The lycanthropic virus story is really nailed down,† says Giles. â€Å"The epicenters that have been mapped over thousands of years are likely the spots where werewolves are concentrated.† As it is used in this line, concentrated most nearly means†¦ (A) extracted (B) paid attention to (C) gathered together (D) directed to one topic If you replaced the word â€Å"concentrated† with any of the answer choices, it COULD make thematic sense. After all, werewolves could be extracted from a place, or be paid attention to (although it seems unlikely that the ACT would have you pick an answer choice that means ending a sentence with a preposition). Also, doesn’t â€Å"concentrated† sometimes have something to do with things being directed to one topic? Danger! Danger! This is all part of the ACT’s Cunning Planâ„ ¢ (NB: not actually trademarked) to trap you! It’s a trap by Mike Knell, used under CC BY-SA 2.0/Cropped from original. Do NOT answer the question based on things that â€Å"could be right,† depending on information you do not know. Imagine you're a cranky English teacher, grading student interpretations of a book read for class. You're not a generous teacher who’s looking for reason to give a student points any way you can because she argued the point. No, you're looking for reasons to mark answers as WRONG. Take that mindset into the ACT Reading with you: Only the answer that is directly supported by the context of the passage is acceptable. In the case of example A above, the answer is (C) gathered together: the centers of the lycanthropic virus infection are likely the spots where werewolves are gathered together. None of the answer choices come even close to fitting into context of this sentence. On occasion, rather than asking about specific words, ACT Reading will instead ask about multiple words, making the question more like "Here's the phrase, what's the meaning?" See example B: Example taken from ACT website. In either case, these questions should be approached in the same way: always, always go back to the line in which the word or phrase appears – don’t let the ACT fool you into answering without checking! Question Type 2: What Word Is Defined By The Passage? These questions ask you to recognize the definition in the passage and relate it to the answer choice that matches it. In contrast to the previous question type of vocab-in-context questions, I think of these as asking â€Å"Here’s the definition, what’s the word?† The ACT has more varied ways of asking these questions than the â€Å"here’s the word, what’s the meaning?† questions. I've listed below just a few examples that I came across in my reviewing of ACT practice tests. Disclaimer: I have edited the questions so that they all refer to the same subject matter; these are not how the questions appeared on the actual ACT. Sample "Here's the definition, what's the word?" questions: Which of the following words best describes the narrator’s father working as he prepares for the full moon? Which of the following best describes how the victim referred to in the fifth paragraph (lines 58-71) is said to have started to transform into a werewolf? Lines 42-53 suggest that, prior to W. Rosenberg’s research, medical researchers had thought of the werewolf as†¦ Halloween Duck: Werewolf Duck by Joshua Smith, used under CC BY-SA 2.0/Cropped from original. Answer to the last question: Apparently as round, yellow, and half-wolf, half†¦duck in a shirt? "What word is defined by the passage?" questions can actually be easier than the "here's the word, what's the definition?" questions. Why? Because since the definitions are in paragraph form, you may be able to gather more information to help answer the question. Here's another actual ACT sample question: Example taken from ACT website. If you know the definition of the word â€Å"discernment,† you have an easy shortcut to the answer: â€Å"The problem with reevaluating and devaluing men poets is that it’s difficult to be sure you have good judgment when you’re doing it. How SHOULD you do it? With caution, or by being cautious.† Even if you don’t know exactly what discernment means, however, the author goes on to explain further in the rest of the paragraph: "The author thinks that taking men poets down a peg too immediately, or quickly, is a problem†¦that means that people who do it should be cautious." Using that clue, you could solve the question, even if you didn'tknow what"discernment" meant. Strategies To Master Vocabulary In Context Questions So what strategies can you use to master these two types of ACT Reading questions? I've put together a 3-step strategy guide below. Strategy 1: Rephrase the information given For questions that ask about words in context, define the word first in your head (or on scrap paper, whichever is easier) in the context of the sentence or paragraph, without looking at the answer choices. Remember, your rephrasing does not have to be elegant as long as it conveys the meaning. For instance, take a look at example C: "She thinks I have a power that she doesn’t have and this brings out her envy and bad humor." In this line, humor most nearly means†¦ My thought process: Let me replace the word with one that keeps the meaning of the sentence. â€Å"She thinks I have a power that she doesn’t have and this brings out her envy and bad state of mind.† Okay, that makes sense and is what the original passage said. For questions that ask you to take a paragraph and choose the best answer that describes it, answer the question in your own words before looking at the answer choices. See example D: My thought process: Question is asking about what researchers thought about the brain. Okay, what does the paragraph say? We need a "new view of the brain" that includes the idea that the brain is "dynamic", "active", and "adaptive," NOT "programmed and static." So medical researchers used to think the brain didn’t change, but now they think it does. Okay, got it, now what're my answer choices? Strategy 2: Cross out answers that clearly don’t fit Sometimes, you can get to the right answer just by knowing what the wrong answers are. This is an especially useful strategy if there's an answer choice with a word that you don't know the meaning of. If you know that the other three answers are definitely wrong, it doesn't matter that you don't know what the meaning of the fourth answer is; by process of elimination, it must the correct choice. Let's take a look at this strategy in the context of example C, from before: My thought process: Choices are personality, whim, mood, and comedy. I rephrased the sentence asâ€Å"She thinks I have a power that she doesn’t have and this brings out her envy and bad state of mind.† Which choice is closest to â€Å"state of mind?† Personality: not really. Whim: No. Mood: yes. Comedy: no. The answer must be C. mood. This strategy still works if you are trying to sum up the meaning of a paragraph in one word. I'll copy and paste example D again, so you don't have to scroll back up: My thought process: The choices are dynamic, unchanging, paradoxical, or creative. My rephrasing of the paragraph was that medical researchers used to think the brain didn’t change, but now they think it does. Which of the choices are closest to meaning "didn't change" or "not changing"? Well, unchanging, obviously. What about the others? Dynamic is what they say the NEW view should be, so no. Paradoxical: there’s nothing about that in the text. Creative: nothing about that in the text. Answer must be B. unchanging. Strategy 3: (Optional) Plug the definition back in This strategy works best for the "here's the word, what's the meaning?" questions, because word-for-word substitutions are a lot simpler than word-to-sum-up-entire-paragraphs-of-information substitutions. Let's take one more look at example C, a "here's the word, what's the meaning?" question: "She thinks I have a power that she doesn’t have and this brings out her envy and bad humor." In this line, humor most nearly means†¦ My thought process: â€Å"She thinks I have a power that she doesn’t have and this brings out her envy and bad mood.† Yeah, that seems right. But I’ll double check: â€Å"She thinks I have a power that she doesn’t have and this brings out her envy and bad personality.† That doesn’t really make sense – why would your personality need to be brought out? No. Especially when â€Å"mood† works better in this sentence. Get Plugged In by Rennett Stowe, used under CC BY 2.0. Whew. Where Do I Go From Here? Are these strategies fine in theory, but you always run out of time on real ACT Reading sections? Discover how to avoid that terrible fate here. Want more in depth guides like this? Read our other guides on Big Picture, Detail, Function, and Inference ACT Reading questions, as well as our deep dive into ACT Reading paired passages. And subscribe to this blog on the upper right. What are the other types of questions you’ll find on the ACT, and what’s the best way to read the passage to answer them? We have strategies for reading passages effectively. Want a breakdown of all the skills you’ll need to excel on the ACT Reading? Read about what's actually tested on ACT Reading. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Reading lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

FINAL EXAM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

FINAL EXAM - Essay Example These days a lot of weapons with large magazine capacities are available on the market. The gun models used for this most recent Aurora shooting have been revealed by the local police chief but it is claimed that talking about the gun model just happens to be a distraction as â€Å"when it comes to weaponry and mass shootings, the issue to focus on is magazine capacity† (Barrett). Now though the gun-control advocates might shift focus to call for controlling the large magazine capacity weapons at a national level, another sad bit is that it is quite tough to ensure that the names of all the emotionally and mentally sick people exist in the background-check system that one goes through when buying guns. However, laws should be passed to limit gun possession further as â€Å"unstable individuals should not have access to any kind of weapon† (Thornburgh). Concluding, this much becomes clear that the pattern of opening fire in a public place has not led to successful gun control policies which could be implemented nationally. Instead of obsessing about which gun models to confiscate and which to sell, focus should be shifted to the magazine capacity and identification of the mentally sick people. Barrett, Paul M. â€Å"After Aurora: Gun Control, One More Time.† BloombergBusinessweek. 20 Jul. 2012. Web. 14 Aug. 2012.

FaceBook And Romantic Relationships Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

FaceBook And Romantic Relationships - Essay Example A recent debate over a local radio station caught my attention when the discussion revolved around a woman who felt cheated and silly over a love affair that started over the face book and hardly lasted two months before she invited the lover (man) into her place of residence. She only learnt that after engaging in romance that the man left her, no more communication while she could easily identify that the man was now hooked up in another romantic relationship over the social media. The phone calls that were made into the studio in contribution to the motion surprised me the more on how many people fall into the trap of exposing their romantic lives over the social media and only to fall prey to such ‘romantic stalking’ persons whose intention is only to have personal gratification and nothing of a long lasting relationship. This therefore gave me the challenge to research deeper into the long lasting effects that Face book, among many other social media has to persons especially concerning romantic relationships. This paper hence intends to evaluate the impacts of face book to personal lives and how such negative effects can be dealt with the ever-increasing need to have face book for ease of communication and keeping circles of friends. Justification Social media has been acknowledged in the past for the positives it brought about in people’s lives especially in matters of communication and sharing of information. It was highly accepted that face book in particular has attracted very many people who find it cheap and convenient manner to keep circles of friends when compared to the means that were in use previously such as through mails, print and digital media as well as through telephone services. Face book was credited of communicating with millions of friends worldwide through just the click of the mouse at once convenience. Equally, receiving feedback from face book is such an easy task as compared to the other communication ways hen ce the ease of adoption (Vitak, Ellison and Steinfield, 2011). Nevertheless, despite such numerous advantages in use of face book, the social plat form has continuously faced critiques because of the increasing negatives that are stemming from the same. For instance, the increasing exposure of personal information through posting personal profiles online increasingly put people into threats such as security and such. People are increasing becoming targets of cyber crime due to the personal information that one shares on the platform. One emerging trend is the use of face book to establish and maintain romantic relationships. Technology has been blamed on failing to conceal personal sensitive information and as such exposing such an individual to high risks. Therefore, this study would be timely in that it would look into detail the impact of face book on personal lives with special attention to romantic relationships and evaluate probable solutions to such shortcomings (Flynn, nd; R aalte et al, nd). Literature review There are various studies that have been done in regard to the revolution that face book and such social platforms have brought in people’s lives. This section therefore looks into some different studies that have been done in the past and establish their contributions to the study topic under analysis. Utz and Beukeboom sought to understand the effect of social media into romantic relationships concerning happiness and jealousy. They pointed out that social network sites expose too much of individual romantic relationship information which has both positive attributes (happiness) as well as negative attributes (jealousy) associated with it. The emotional traits associated

Public Relations through effective management of communication Annotated Bibliography

Public Relations through effective management of communication - Annotated Bibliography Example In diverging the historical approaches used and getting into new concepts of managing communication, the authors integrate theory and practice, with an emphasis on professionals as well as students. The inclusion of various cultures highlights the essence in communication and the importance of public relations in the field as well as in the school (Chen and Starosta, 2005). The book will thus be a vital source of information in the pursuit of use of management communication to enhance public relations. Carlile, P. (2002). A pragmatic view of knowledge and boundaries: boundary Objects in New Product Development. Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology This study explores product development and the importance of influencing knowledge that relates to the same. Communication is the main media that results in an input of knowledge to a person and without such effectiveness in communication, there is no way that, such knowledge will be passed. A pragmatic view of the practice of knowledge is an investigation into how knowledge is passed over to function and thus used to affect a certain function according to Carlile (2002). The main aim of using this article is to understand the reason as to why communication is relevant in almost all aspects of our daily lives. If knowledge is not impacted properly, there is bound to be a myriad of errors ranging from various perspectives, an issue that can only be solved through effective communication.

Environmental Planning Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Environmental Planning - Research Paper Example The local planners scrutinize proposed public facilities such as hospitals, schools, parking areas, market places among others. They present their request to the relevant government department so as to get approval as well as funding. They have to keep abreast of social, economic as well as legal issues for their project to be viable (Levy, 2011). When the government is sure that all the regulations have been followed, they allow the local planners to implement the plan. This improves the living standards of people in the urban areas as well as creating job opportunities. However, the government is keen to ensure that the project achieve their objectives. They do this by constant evaluations. This ensures that public money and other resources are not misappropriated. In addition, the local planners work together with civic leaders, land developers as well as public officials. They are also charged with the duty of mediating in case of disputes. Thus, they are on many occasions required to defend their proposals before elected official and legislative committee. This ensures that the local developer do not deviate from the state authorities objectives (Levy,

The Relationship between the State and the Citizen Essay

The Relationship between the State and the Citizen - Essay Example The exact relationship between a state and its citizens is of profound concern since the state seeks to acquire maximum authority while the citizen seeks to acquire maximum liberty, a condition that is impossible in reality. However, to achieve a necessary compromise of both sides, reasonable amount of power and authority is made available to the state to ensure its smooth running and reasonable liberty is made available to the citizens to ensure the best developments of their personalities. A citizen is not necessarily a person who lives within the boundaries of a state but rather an individual who enjoys the rights made available to them and that are recognized by the state and also one who participates in the affairs of the state. The interests of the citizen should not be in conflict with the state since both the state and the individual depend on each other. The citizen depends on the state for safety, law and order as well for facilities that enable them undertake their day-to- day activities with ease. According to Veneklassen and Miller (2002), there are three definitions of citizenship that relate the status of an individual to the relationship with a nation-state (32). These include: Civil citizenship. It emerged in the Western world in the 18th century and it refers to the human rights necessary to ensure freedom of every individual. These rights include free speech, freedom of assembly, equality and property rights. Political citizenship. This definition emerged as a result of the struggles in the 19th century and it accentuates the right to participation in exercising political power. It was characterized by the struggle by women, minorities and poor people to acquire the right to vote which was initially granted only to male individuals who owned property. Social citizenship. It emerged in the 20th century and it emphasises on minimum rights and standards of economic, social and cultural well-being. It is a struggle by the disadvantaged groups to make this view of citizenship legitimate. States today are generally less responsive to the needs of their citizens and the deficit of most democratic states in being adequately democratic is a clear indication of this. The governments in these states are adapting a trend in which they are becoming more responsive to the needs of individuals or groups who are concerned with a particular part of the economy and are less responsive to the needs of the general public. Despite the requirement of a democratic political system where every citizen has equal rights and a say in the governing process, some organizations and individuals have an elevated influence over the governing process by trying to influence legislators or bureaucrats to act in their favour. As a result of this, the few in power satisfy their greed at the expense of the needs of the majority of the citizens. A state that is less responsive to the needs of its people is generally less likely to undertake duties allocated to it in the best interests of the general

Environmental Planning Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Environmental Planning - Research Paper Example The local planners scrutinize proposed public facilities such as hospitals, schools, parking areas, market places among others. They present their request to the relevant government department so as to get approval as well as funding. They have to keep abreast of social, economic as well as legal issues for their project to be viable (Levy, 2011). When the government is sure that all the regulations have been followed, they allow the local planners to implement the plan. This improves the living standards of people in the urban areas as well as creating job opportunities. However, the government is keen to ensure that the project achieve their objectives. They do this by constant evaluations. This ensures that public money and other resources are not misappropriated. In addition, the local planners work together with civic leaders, land developers as well as public officials. They are also charged with the duty of mediating in case of disputes. Thus, they are on many occasions required to defend their proposals before elected official and legislative committee. This ensures that the local developer do not deviate from the state authorities objectives (Levy,

Animal paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Animal paper - Essay Example Oftentimes this methodical rise and descent is accented by one or two acrobatic flips into the ocean air. Instrument + Range Although difficult to express the range of actions and shades of feelings, for this particular animal and the actions it undertakes in a given day I believe a bass violin would be the best instrument to suit this purpose. In this way the low bass would symbolize the size and strength of the animal whereas the higher tenor sounds that could be generated along the upper reaches of the fingerboard could help to symbolize the shades of meaning, and thrill that the animal must feel when it rises to the surface and/or jumps into the ocean air. Musical Dynamics Not surprisingly, the musical style must take on the dynamics of power, suspense, and thrill in order to accurately represent the actions of the cheetah. As such, the best model with which to do all of these things would be that of the classical symphony. The style and musical presence that could be provided wo uld be sufficient to paint the mood and the strength that the animal engenders. Although some might consider the dynamics to necessarily be mundane due to the fact that the animal is not one of a great deal of action; however, this could be countered by the magnificence and power that the animal displays in all of its movements. Rather than a piece that relies on the integrated speed and tempo fast action, the work could display a broad use of building dynamics coupled with crescendos and decrescendos and progressions in order to achieve the desired result. Texture Although the entire symphony would be utilized, the string sections would be relied upon to the greatest degree to provide the listener with the sense of a rush and climb and subsequent descent that would be manifest . Likewise, as the animal approaches the surface, the texture would fill to provide use of all violins, cellos, and bass violins to provide the sense that the desired goal and/or action is nearly completed. L ikewise, with the jump into the ocean air, I would employ use of the first violin section with the brass. This would be affected by having the violins run a quick progression of notes to indicate the jump then suspend their music while the brass section provides a powerful solitary note to be concluded by a strong conclusion of the action by the cymbals/percussion section. Rhythm Section As described multiple times already, it will be up to the individual musical elements to help to describe the power, magnificence, and strength of the whale (Rothenberg, 2012). However, the rhythm section will be relied up on heavily to provide the listener with the accompany actions that the whale undertakes. Likewise, the timpani will be used to emphasize the power and strength that are exhibited in nearly every action. Further percussion will serve to accent the movements and activities to include the jump and subsequent crash back into the ocean water. Likewise, a snare drum could easily be used to denote the release of the oxygen the whale has been holding in its lungs for such a very long period of time. Melody Style In this piece the melody style that will be employed will be that of a conjunct melody. By using such a means of melodical expressions, the slow, methodical, graceful, and majestic movements that the whale makes during its ascent and subsequent descent could be amplified to the listener. Likewise, the pitch of the melody will necessarily

Crusades and Holy Land Essay Example for Free

Crusades and Holy Land Essay * In 1905, Pope Urban saw an opportunity for power and decides to help the leader of the Byzantine Empire by killing the turks. As the Pope is Christian, he doesnt want power in hands of infidels (infidels are people who dont believe in Christianity), and as Turks are Muslim and did not believe in the same ideas as the pope he wanted to kill them. * In 1096, Peter the Hermit (a French monk) started the peoples crusade which was made up mainly by poor peasants and farmers. Peter the Hermit was known to be a great speaker so he motivated people to fight for the Holy Land. This crusade was not successful since they were not trained, they all died killed by the Turks. * in 1096-1099 brothers, Godfrey and Baldwin of Bouillon set off the first crusade. They created the first Crusader State at Edessa. They captured Antioch. Disagreements over the rule of Antioch slowed their progress and split their forces, but in August 1098 crusaders reached Jerusalem and the attack lasted over a month, by then its keepers surrendered. One of the brothers died, Godfrey, so Baldwin became the first King of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. * European lords worked to keep rule over Edessa (when a crusader state was attacked, the Holy Order of Knights fought back). In the second crusade (1147-1149), King Loous VII and Emperor Conrad III instead of protecting Edessa, they wanted to overtake Damascus, and their poorly organized attack resulted into failure. Most crusaders returned home, while those who stayed tried to protect their Holy Land, Jerusalem. * During 1187-1192, in the third crusade, Saladin (Turkic ruler) rose to power, he believed that everyone who was not Muslim should leave Jerusalem. In order to counterattack, europeans united forces against Muslims (this time three kings united: King Richard the Lionheart, Emperor Fredirick Barbarossa and King Phillip II). Fredirick Barbarossa died and King Phillip returned to Europe, leaving King RIchard fightning for Jerusalem. * King Richard kept trying to gain control, however Jerusalem never fell. He decided to form a relationship with his foe, Saladin. After multiple tries, he couldnt get control, but he made an agreement with Saladin, Muslim empire had the control over Jerusalem, however Christians had the right to enter the Holy Land and visit their shrines. * In 1198 Pope Innocent III called for a new crusade, it was led by French knights and they were set out for the Holy Land, however in 1202 they got distracted by Venetian lords who convinced them to capture the wealth and splendor of the Eastern Orthodox Constantinople instead of the Holy land. * The Fifth Crusade, led by King Andrew II, went first to the Holy Land and then to Egypt, but it failed. * Frederick II led the Sixth Crusade, which was successful in the reclaiming of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (in 1228). However, the kingdom was plagued by civil war which made vulnerable to Muslim attacks. * After 1244, Jerusalem would never again become Christian, Crusades still tried but failed. The last state of Christianity fell in 1291 to the Mamluk Empire.

Poppers Theory Of Falsifiability And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy Essay

Poppers Theory Of Falsifiability And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy Essay Compare and contrast Poppers Theory of Falsifiability and Kuhns Theory of Paradigms. What are the implications of each for the conduct of Social Science? Poppers theory of falsifiability and Kuhns theory of paradigms have some significant differences, although they both argue for falsification as the general research method for all scientific disciplines. Accordingly, the consequences for the approach in the Social Sciences differ as well. The overall statement of this essay will be that Poppers theory allows a more aim-oriented research, which means that one has (theoretically) the chance to solve social problems intentionally. The scientist has the opportunity to gather objective knowledge about the equally objective social reality. In Kuhns view this is not possible, since any research and knowledge is subjective, it is influenced by the scientists paradigm. But here, a scientist can interpret social behaviour on a large scale and from within a specific world view, a way that is not open for Popper. The opportunity to find the truth about social reality comes at the expense of explanatory power. In order to show these implications it is necessary to point out the aspects of both theories relevant for this analysis, contrasting their common starting point and highlighting the differences that are substantial for the analysis of their application in the Social Sciences. Possibilities and Limits for Scientists in Kuhns and Poppers Theories The relevant aspects for this comparison of Poppers and Kuhns theories are best displayed if they are contrasted within the categories of ontology, epistemology and methodology. Since both of the theories are highly comprehensive, a more detailed division would probably not do them justice. But these broad categories allow a sufficient contrast for the proposed argument and lead up to the necessary insights about the notions of scientific progress that the theorists have respectively. For Popper, an objective reality exists that can be observed (Popper 1963: 226). As a scientist with the proper understanding of science though it is never possible to be absolutely certain that one has definitely found this reality, this absolute truth (Popper 2002 : 24). Most of the scientific statements are relative; they constitute hypotheses, and are therefore by their very form not expressions of absolute truth (Popper 1962: 221). Likewise, Kuhn is convinced of the existence of an objective reality, a truth, but unlike Popper he does not believe in the possibility to describe it, to discover it at all. Any knowledge about this reality is subjective, is shaped by the social context, by the individual socialisation of the scientist (Kuhn 1963: 120). It is already at this point that Kuhns idea of paradigms has to be introduced, which emphasizes the centrality of this notion for the entire theory. Kuhns paradigm is a vague concept; it can best be described as covering a range of fa ctors in scientific development including or somehow involving laws and theories, models, standards, and methods (both theoretical and instrumental), vague intuitions, explicit or implicit metaphysical beliefs (or prejudices). In short, anything that allows science to accomplish anything can be a part of (or somehow involved in) a paradigm. (Shapere 1980: 29) It is a deeply psychological concept with a highly unconscious nature which explains the difficulty defining it, let alone in analyzing its impact on science. For Kuhn, these paradigms are the beginning of what he calls normal science (Kuhn 1963: 42f.). It is only with such a paradigm that a scientist has enough fundamental orientation in his discipline to begin real scientific work (Kuhn 1963: 79). It cannot be emphasized enough that the scientists are unaware of having these paradigms. It is not something that they deliberately chose, rather it is something they acquired through a process of socialization (Kuhn 1963: 47f.). This clearly describes the communal nature of a paradigm (original italics, Eckberg and Hill 1980: 122). Therefore, a scientist will always see the objective reality through the subjective glasses of his paradigm. As to the epistemology, the pure method of falsification faces the problem of an infinite regress; if falsification is applied to every scientific statement, the research would not lead anywhere. Popper and Kuhn both carry on the tradition of science as it has been established by Positivism. Nevertheless, they are also aware of the question about theory-neutrality in research and the said problem of infinite regress, but they give different answers to this dilemma. Popper introduces the notion of background knowledge (Popper 2002: 25), which is such basic knowledge without which the scientist would not be able to conduct research in his discipline. Nevertheless, it is as provisional as any knowledge, and is potentially falsifiable just as any scientific statement that deserves the name (Popper 2002: 65). The basic knowledge is therefore an individual, subjective choice made by the scientist, but it is a deliberate and conscious one (Lakatos 1970: 105; Popper 2002: 85; Popper 1963: 24 5) which cannot be said about the paradigm. This does equally provide a useful solution to the problem of an infinite falsification, but one that is adopted unconsciously, since it is linked so closely to the actual conception of reality shared by the scientific community. A deliberate commitment to basic knowledge contrasts an involuntary commitment to a paradigm (Kuhn 1963: 97). In this regard, the incommensurability of paradigms has to be mentioned (Smith 1998: 195; Lakatos 1970: 93). Paradigms can be compared to a religious belief held by scientists, and its psychological nature does not allow holding two paradigms simultaneously (Keat and Urry 1982: 62; Kuhn 1963: 93; 151). It is no exaggeration that the process of a paradigm change is described as revolutionary (Kuhn 1963: 91ff.). We therefore have the result of a socialization process against an individual, conscious choice. Kuhn as well as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾emphasize [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] the intimate and inevitable entanglement o f scientific observation with scientific theory (Kuhn 1970: 2). But whereas in Poppers belief this entanglement can be influenced by the scientist, it is determined and beyond any deliberate change intended by an individual in Kuhns world. With regard to the methodology, Popper emphasizes the logic of science, that science and specifically social science is defined by the chosen method, and not by its results (Popper 1962: 218). Falsification is applied to the theory or rather the hypotheses to be tested, not to the background knowledge (for the time being). The choice is subjective (and is therefore reflecting values), but it is deliberate and rational and therefore acceptable. In Kuhns theory however, paradigms provide the research frame, and falsification works within it but is never applied to this frame (Kuhn 1963: 80). Successful falsification provides problems to be solved within the paradigm; they are like pieces to a puzzle which is in its entirety unknown (Wolin 1980: 170). According to Kuhn, there is no logic of science (Shapere1980: 30), only interpretation within a given paradigm is possible. If there is no paradigm, the scientists work on establishing one, so as to start with normal science. During a cris is that leads to a paradigm change, contradicting facts and the new paradigm are developed simultaneously (Kuhn 1963: 96, 140; Kuhn 1970: 10). The results of such a falsification process within the paradigm therefore is exactly what Popper calls the sociology of knowledge (Popper 1962: 220), a socially constructed and determined knowledge, precisely what he tries to evade. These aspects of ontology, epistemology and methodology lead to the notions about the possible progress that science can achieve. For Popper, knowledge is cumulative, since falsification is also a method that helps to refine theories (Popper 2002: 24). Whether it is the adjustment or reformulation of a theory after a successful falsification, or the resistance of a theory to the tests, both results are considered to be an improvement (Popper 1963: 245). Although the theory in the latter case might not be true, it is scientifically superior to those already falsified. The continuous formulation and rejection of theories as well as the work on new problems with reformulated theories is all considered to be a (cumulative) development of knowledge (Popper 1963: 215, 222; Popper 1962: 221). For Kuhn on the other hand, there is no general progress of cumulative knowledge, only a change of paradigms over time (Kuhn 1963: 156). New paradigms are adopted because the scientific community consi ders it to have greater potential for the new (albeit only vague, in their entirety unknown) problems to be solved. They have an essentially rational factor, and seem to be more useful for future research (Keat and Urry 1982: 169). But paradigms are exclusive, not derived from one another (Smith 1998: 195). Since knowledge is so closely connected to them, any growth of knowledge cannot objectively be ascertained (Kuhn 1970: 20f.). At the most, a form of progress can be observed within the workings of normal science, during the process of puzzle-solving (Dogan 2001: 11025). But there is no progress in the sense of coming closer to the truth (Keat and Urry 1982: 169). Different Connections between Theory and Observation: Consequences for the Social Sciences This contrast highlights the most important aspects of Kuhns and Poppers theories that are relevant to analyze the consequences that both approaches have for the Social Sciences respectively. Both imply individual restrictions as well as possibilities for them and in Poppers case the theory imposes even a normative duty on the scientist. He argues for a unity of science concerning the methods, which means that the procedure of formulating hypotheses and subjecting them to tests of falsification should be applied in the Social Sciences just as in any other (Stokes 1997: 58). It is a method that best supports the aim of objective research, trying to prevent the scientist from adopting a narrow, selective perception that only discerns proofs for the own theory but not its failures. All Science is fundamentally characterized by the method applied (Popper 2002: 29). But for Popper, Social Science specifically should be characterized by something else; by the ethical awareness every research project ought to have (Stokes 1997: 69). Before this is explained in greater detail however, it must be emphasized that such a normative component is of course not derivable from the objective facts describing Poppers theory. No normative responsibility can be derived from an actual condition. But Poppers theory allows it, and the cons equences from his falsificationist approach for the Social Sciences are largely dominated by this obligation. Apart from the question whether one agrees with him, his argument also points out the consequences for the Social Sciences and his theory in general, and it is an essential part of his approach. Popper demands a fundamentally practical orientation in the Social Sciences, any research project should contribute to the solution of social problems of their time. He also argues for more ethical awareness in the Social Sciences; in this case he is a child of his time. This attitude comes from experiences with totalitarianism and fascism (Stokes 1997: 57). But what is important in this context is that Popper therefore agues for the individual influence of scientific as well as extra-scientific values: His argument is that the individual choice of the scientist does not only expand on values such as scientific precision or intersubjectivity of research findings, as it is reflected by the choice for falsification as a method and by the choice for falsifiable, but for now untested background knowledge. It also applies to the scientists aims, to the problems he chooses to investigate. Broadly speaking, any research should eventually try to reduce human suffering (Stokes 1997: 60). Even if one does not agree with Poppers demand here, it highlights the opportunities open to a scientists according to his theory. Knowledge is cumulative, so the scientist has the possibility to take a conscious part in this accumulation of knowledge about the (objective) social reality (Popper 1962: 221). This objective reality can be the focus of research since it is possible to gather knowledge about it. Even the most fundamental assumptions or convictions, the background knowledge, can be questioned and altered. Any social influence on our knowledge can eventually be evaded, indirectly, by the choice of falsification as a method and by unconventional or for its time unusual choice of research topics. The scientist has not only the opportunity to discover the objective social reality, he can (and in Poppers view must) also endeavour to define the social problems of his time and propose solutions for it. This emphasis on the objective social reality as the focus and the denial of any socially constructed limits of the research has even further implications. There are abstract as well as tangible objects in Social Science. Its scientists are engaged in analyzing social problems, general phenomenons or dynamics, things that have an undeniably abstract nature. On the other hand though it is the individual who is identified as the causal unity of these phenomenons, it is the objective, observable reality which has to be the center for any hypotheses or theory that fulfills the criteria of falsifiability. A theory that has a holistic character and applies to the abstract objects of social reality itself cannot meet the standards for intersubjective testing, for an experiment to be repeated and tested over and over again (Popper 1962: 218). So while the eventual aim is of course to understand the dynamics and causes of abstract constructs in social reality, its research is restricted to th e individual. On the one hand, Poppers scientist can therefore consciously choose his object of research, can be specifically aim-oriented, and is therefore not limited to a purely explanatory role. On the other hand, it is impossible for him to consciously work within a specific, personal belief about the social reality that he never questions during his research (Popper 1962: 212). Explanations within the belief systems like Marxism or elitism that intend to explain social reality within this frame are therefore not possible, since these beliefs do not fulfill the standards of permissible background knowledge. A last remark has to be made on Poppers view about the Social Sciences. It is exactly against the perceived dangers of such social frames that he argues for the publicity of Science (Stokes 1997: 74; Popper 1962: 217f.). To complete the standards of critical research, to guarantee that intersubjectivity and falsifiability are adhered to the results (and the method) of research have to be published. The critical appraisal by other scientists is needed to establish the highest possible objectivity. The strength of Poppers approach lies therefore in the fact that the scientist has more free will in choosing his objectives, and that this choice also implies a normative choice. This is the consequence of Poppers particular connection between theory and observation, that science is not value-free, neither on the level of aims nor when it comes to its method, but these values are acceptable as long as they are a conscious choice. For a scientist in Kuhns approach though this choice is made for him by the paradigm. In the case that there is no paradigm yet, scientists have not even entered the stage of real scientific progress of their discipline; they have not yet started with normal science (Kuhn 1963: 79). According to Kuhn, this is exactly the case for the Social Sciences (Kuhn 1970: 6; Wolin 1980: 169). But even if the Social Sciences had already acquired a paradigm in Kuhns definition, such aim-oriented research like Popper proposes it would not be possible. The scientist would of course have an objective for his research, but he cannot claim to have chosen it objectively, let alone having done so out of the normative conviction to ultimately discover and evade any social aspect to his research and knowledge. This social influence that the scientist is unaware of is but the starting point for real research, also in the Social Sciences. Some consider the different schools within Social Sciences as paradigms, although this contradicts the unconscious character of a paradigm according to Kuhns interpretation. It is argued that overarching concepts such as paradigms built on more solid ground in the natural sciences than in the social sciences, because in the former truth is universal, in the latter, contextual. (Dogan 2001: 11026) If paradigms are going to appear in the Social Sciences, they will only be realized in the narrow form of different schools that are not characterized by incommensurability, but by mutual avoidance (Dogan 2001: 11024). Even though this idea does not realize all characteristics of a paradigm, its example is most useful here. The Scientist does of course not enjoy the freedom that he has in Poppers view. He is exposed to the norms of his school and he has to realize that even an approach that he considers to be most revolutionary and unconventional is probably still within the boundaries of th is school. For the rare case that such deviant behavior should happen despite the deep socialization of the individual scientist, then the paradigmatic community will not tolerate it and most likely simply ignore his findings (Wolin 1980: 167f.). It is not possible for an individual to deliberately convince all the members of this specific attitude to change it radically. Such change is incremental and therefore happens only gradually (Wolin 1980: 175). But then he can explain the social reality from this particular point or belief system. He has possibilities for explanation that are unavailable for a scientist in Poppers theory. It is not without coincidence that Marxism is considered to be such a powerful school in Social Science that it comes close to what Kuhn describes as a paradigm (Dogan 2001: 11026), a school that is given as one of the typical examples (Popper 1962: 212) of the social bias and subjectivity that has to be avoided according to Popper. Intersubjectivity is a therefore an important value for Kuhn as well as for Popper, but whereas this scientific value only applies within the paradigmatic community for Kuhn, for Popper it is precisely the means to evade such influence. The social reality that is always perceived subjectively can therefore be thoroughly explained and described from within these world views, and the progress scientists make with this kind of research is relatively substantial, since they can accept more easily the findings of their colleagues. They can interpret behavior, specific social rules, and are not restricted to describe individual behavior like Popper. But this advantage in explaining social phenomena therefore comes at the price of aim-oriented research such as it is possible in Poppers view. The puzzle-solving process during normal science is after all defined by the fact that the bigger picture of the puzzle is unknown (Wolin 1980: 170). Accepting a paradigm and work within its boundaries is compared to a kind of religious change (Lakatos 1970: 93). The scientist cannot make its structures visible, not on purpose at least. He has to rely on the intangible dynamic that characterizes normal science. He has only the possibil ity to choose scientific values, and even that only to a limited extent (Kuhn 1963: 17). He also has to accept that there are possibly some social problems or facts of the objective social reality that does, after all, exist that he does not perceive at all due to his paradigm. And if the Social Science is truly without a paradigm so far, the stage of normal research where a form of progress is finally possible has not even begun. Conclusion Both Poppers theory of falsification and Kuhns theory of paradigms assume the existence of an objective social reality and are convinced of the merits of falsification as the acceptable method for its research. They are equally considering the problem of theory neutrality in the Social Sciences as well as continuing the tradition of Positivism that does not see a fundamental difference for science within its different disciplines. Nevertheless, Kuhn and Popper differ in their opinions about the acceptable solution to this question about theory-neutrality, about the relation between theory and observation. Poppers ontology and epistemology demand potential falsifiability for all scientific statements in order to discover this objective truth and evade the pitfalls of the subjective bias. What he considers to be the absolute fall of science is only its beginning in Kuhns view. Only paradigms, unconscious social frameworks, allow progressive research, and any knowledge about reality mus t be subjective. The consequences of Poppers view for Social Sciences in particular consist in the possibility to deliberately work on the social problems of the time, and in the conviction that the any social fact can eventually be discovered. It comes at a reduced ability to explain social phenomena holistically and from within a specific worldview that cannot be operationalised into falsifiable hypotheses. This is exactly what a researcher in Kuhns world can do, albeit at the expense of the said advantages Poppers scientist has.

Standardized Tests :: Standardized Testing Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Standardized tests are very common throughout the United States. They are used to measure students’ academic performances in school. These tests vary from state to state in all grade levels. However, these tests are believed to be biased towards those students who come from higher-class neighborhoods, simply because they have more educational resources. â€Å"The absence of standards virtually guarantees stratified resources and access to knowledge, based upon income, color of skin, and the community and neighborhood in which one lives† (French, 2003). The resources in the suburban areas differ from those in the urban areas, because of the gap within the difference of incomes. Families living in suburban neighborhoods have a bigger income, which enables them to have more resources than those living in urban neighborhoods. Most educational resources come from taxes, which plays a big part in the gap between urban and suburban neighborhoods.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This gap causes a disadvantage to those individuals living in lower class neighborhoods, because they do not see or have as many resources as those living in the suburbs. Because of the lack of resources that are provided to those living in the lower-class neighborhoods they are not as prepared for the standardized tests as their higher-class counterparts. These standardized tests are seeing new standards every couple of years or so. Some of the new standards include, students receiving a certain score in the tested subject areas in order to refrain from failing and being retained in the same grade, or even going to summer school just to be promoted. Are these standards helping or hurting?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is hard to say whether these tests are efficient in assessing a student’s knowledge. There have been studies done that shows how students perform contributes to a number of factors. Students are individuals just as adults and can easily slip up on a test, just as many adults have done because of numerous reasons. They suffer from stress, lack of sleep, how they are feeling, whether they ate, and many other reasons. â€Å"These influences most dramatically affect low-income students and students of color† (French, 2003). From the rise of immigration there have been tests (IQ and Stanford-Binet) that were used to sort and track students based on race and income. According to a study it has been concluded that these tests will continue to hinder the ability of Black and Latino students to graduate from high school (Orfield and Wald, 2000; Haney, 1999; McNeil, 2000).

The Role of Financial Managerial Accounting Function

Accounting is a major part of an organization or business, it help to provided information needed to manage and make economic decision in order to move the company or organization forward. Financial and managerial accounting work together with emphasis on the future of the company, but have different proposes that helps to enhance the organization both ways as in internal and external. The main purpose of financial accounting is to provide an external performance of the company or organization accomplishment to their stockholder, lenders, financial analysts, and creditors, tax authorities by prepare financial statement. However, it also reports past and present transactions on the balance sheet and the company’s income and cash flow statement. Managerial accounting is use to focus on providing information within the company or organization, of which includes planning and making decision for the company, it’s a manager’s job, he/she must have proficiency in the managerial accounting because it is the foundation of the company’s future, and the manager’s aim is to control the company’s operation by improving the way internal reports and external financial statement will be used in decision making within the company. In addition, Managerial accounting deal with topics such as cost behavior, profit planning, operational budgeting are all financial decision to be made to produce the external financial statements and its the managers of the managerial accounting department responsibility to have them done. To compare the two accounting system I would have to say they have similar function, they both produce reports one for external and one for internal that is use for making decision for the company. The managerial accounting deal with confidential financial reports that is used by the CEO’s within the organization or company, these reports are consist of sales forecasting, the company’s budgets analysis and comparative analysis and any type of merge or consolidation reports the company did in a day, weeks or months. In addition, these reports is generated on a timely basic such as weekly or monthly it is more flexible than financial reports, and it does not focus on general accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Moreover it is use by the CEO to fore see the future of where the company is going. The financial accounting is more concern with the external aspect of the company, so when generating the reports for their stockholders, lenders, financial analysts, and others outside of the company they apply the general accepted accounting principles (GAAP). In addition financial account reports or focus on the past in a more historical factor of the four financial statement of which include a balance sheet, income statement, owners’ equity statement and cash flows statement, the report are generated for a set period of time such as a fiscal year to give the company a history for the hold years. In conclusion financial and managerial accounting can be said that they play a very important part in business making decision, if the rules are apply in the correct and ethical manner by the CEO’s and mangers .

The Importance of Public Speaking. Essay

Public speaking can be defined as continuous formal presentation to an audience made by a presenter . Most of the time, people use public speaking to deliver vital messages to the public in proper way. As its name implies, it is a way of communication that will make our ideas public. Through public speaking, we share our ideas with people and it may influence people’s thoughts. Nowadays, many people around the world use public speaking to spread their ideas and influence such as Franklin Roosevelt, Billy Graham, Martin Luther King, and Barack Obama. Although public speaking requires the same skills as used in normal conversation, public speaking and conversation is not identical. Public speaking involves talking in front of a group of people, usually with some preparation. It can be in front of people that you know or a crowd of strangers unlike normal conversation which does not requires preparation to talk. Public speaking is important to everyone regardless what kind of job. Most people, at some point in their life, will need to stand up and speak in front of a group of people. According to Michael Osborn (2003), people seldom speak in public unless they have some idea that they wish to deliver to people. Mostly, we do need to speak in public speaking when we have something to share with other people. Moreover, public speaking is also needed for career purpose and for educational purpose. The time we speak in a public setting is when we decide to speak on matters of importance, or when we are asked to speak about experiences and expertise or when we are required to speak. For instance, Lois Gibbs prior to 1978 who described herself as â€Å"typical American women†, decided to speak out about 20 000 tons of toxic chemicals were buried beneath her home in New York after she learned about it . Ryan White, a child who involved in public speaking after been asked to share and speak about his experience – infected by AIDS virus after received a blood transfusion (Griffin, 2003). According to Rudolph F Verderber (2008), public speaking is one type of human communication which occurs within the public communication context. Imagine, for a moment, that human beings could not speak and could not communicate  ideas about science, current events, and topics as mundane as the weather. It is only then that one can understand the benefits of social communication, especially public speaking. Public speaking may be the most frightening thing as one must stand up in front of mass umber off people. However, it has many benefit such as it builds self-confidence, develops one’s critical thinking skills, it can develops personal and professional skills, it creates community, and lastly it can influence the world and can change people’s thoughts. First of all, public speaking can help us build self-confidence. Based on recent surveys, almost 75 percent of adult population fears public speaking. (Mc Croskey, 1993; Richmond and Mc Croskey, 1995). It is proven that most of people would prefer to be listener than a speaker. Fear and nervousness are factors that discouraging people from being a public speaker. According to most studies, public speaking is number one people’s fear and death is number two. This means that if someone have to go to a funeral, they are better off in the casket than doing eulogy (Seinfeld, 1993, p. 120). However, many people do not realize that public speaking will help us feel more confident. Nervousness because of stage fright is normal and most of public speakers experienced it. The major reasons of nervousness are fear of being stared at, fear of failure, fear of rejection and fear of the unknown . In order to be more confident, one must know the right way to handle the nervousness. According to Lucas E. 2012, one of the key to gain confidence is by doing preparation thoroughly and picking a topic that we really know it well. Next, we must think positively. Confidence is a well-known power of positive thinking (Lucas, 2012). Then, we have to remember that most nervousness is not visible. Therefore, knowing this will make it easier for us to be confident and face the audience. After few times doing public speaking, we will automatically develop self-confidence in speechmaking abilities and we will likely become more confident in other aspect . As a result, many people especially those who have high level of public speaking anxiety (PSA), feel more confident and competent after they have done several times of public speaking. Next, public speaking can help improve communication and personal skills. One of the best benefits of learning to give a good speech is it brings personal satisfaction (Hamilton, 2003). When  we successfully deliver a good speech, the kind of personal satisfaction you experience is unparalleled. A positive response from the audience can help us feel more confident. Thus, it can bring about a lot of improvement in our overall personality. Public speaking is interrelated with communication skills and can be described as a form of communication. Public speaking does not always mean that we have to give a speech to a large audience. When we go for an interview, and speak to a group of interviewers or when we are giving a class presentation; all these are also forms of public speaking. In such situations, if we have the ability to communicate properly, it can help us shape up our future as the personal skills has been improved. Nowadays, most of employers look for employees who can listen carefully, present ideas clearly and think critically. Requirement for higher-level positions is communication skills. Therefore, the ability to present thoughts clearly and persuasively that we gained from public speaking will lead to job success (Jaffe, 2004). Besides that, public speaking can improve critical thinking skills. Lucas in his book described critical thinking as the ability to detect weakness in other people’s arguments and it involves skills such as ability to differentiate fact from opinion, to judge the credibility of statements and to assess the soundness of evidence. It is also the ability to see clearly the relationship among ideas (Lucas, 2012, p.16). Writing a speech requires a lot of careful thought. It’s not enough to have a message; we also need to figure out how to deliver the message to fit the needs of audience. According to Lucas (2012), organizing a speech is not only about arranging ideas but it is an important part of shaping the ideas themselves. We have to think how to make points which are relevant to audience and how to make the audience understand the message. Thinking in this way is a great way to improve critical thinking skills. If we start thinking critically about the speaking style, we may also find ways to improve our general communication style. For instance, to make a good speech, we need to think how to make arguments strong and how to make the structure of the speech clear and cohesive. Therefore, this situation makes us become a more effective thinker and we can enhance our ability to think clearly. For that reason, public speaking has been included as a part of education to develop the skills of  critical thinking among students. Furthermore, public speaking can be used to influence the world and can change people’s thought. Many people around the world have spread their influence through public speaking. The examples of people who used public speaking to spread influence are Martin Luther, Barack Obama, Billy Graham in United States while in other countries, the power of public speaking employed by people such as former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, South African leader Nelson Mandela and Burmese democracy champion Aung San Su Kyi . Unlike usual conversations, public speaking contains purpose and responsibility in many every interaction. Public speakers use their knowledge of persuasion to motivate others to take collective action to achieve desired goals. Public speaking skills can be used to influence multiple people simultaneously, such as in a meeting or when addressing a large group. This is why it has power to influence others. We can use public speaking to persuade others to believe or accept our ideas. In addition, public speaking affects cultures. According to Jaffe (2004), culture are not static, which means it can be shaped and it mold our way of life often through public speaking continuously. Public speaking has influenced culture throughout history. Both women and men have spoken on issues that transformed culture. Most historical events have some form of public speaking associated with it. According to Pearce (1998), public speakers attempt to influence society in few ways. First, some hope to spread cultural beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviors to people who do not hold them. Second, speakers reinforce or strengthen existing cultural elements. They encourage listeners to continue with the current behaviors and elements. For instance, a politician influence citizen to keep voting, and pastors urge their effort to continue feeding the hungry. Next, some speakers attempt to restore matters to a healthy state when events threaten to split apart communities. Besides, speakers try to change their societies by bringing about social change . This is because public speaking can be persuasive which can influence the culture. Indeed, cultures are changing and uncertain. Public speakers use this opportunity to transmit cultural beliefs and behavior. They also persuade audiences to change their ways of  thinking or acting. As a conclusion, public speaking is a form of communication to make our ideas public. It is a medium to share our thoughts and it can influence people. Although many people are afraid of speaking in public setting, it actually can boosts self-confidence. Based on Lucas’ opinion, one way to overcome nervousness and become more confident is by doing preparation thoroughly. Moreover, public speaking also helps to develop critical thinking skills. To convince people, we must plan our speech wisely. This needs us to think deeply and critically in order to influence people about the ideas that we share. Therefore, it will improve the critical thinking as we have to think how to make audience understand the message. What is more, public speaking improves our communication skills and personal skills. When we learnt how to deliver speech effectively, our skills will be better after few times doing the public speaking. According to Hamilton (2013), the improved skills will bring personal satisfaction to individual. Next, public speaking can influence the world and change people’s thoughts. Hamilton (2003) said, public speakers usually used the knowledge of persuasion to change people’s mind and accept their ideas. This is what makes the public speaking very influential. Bibliography Gregory, H. (2012). Public Speaking for College & Career. McGraw-Hill. Griffin, C. L. (2003). Invitation to Public Speaking. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Griffin, C. L. (2003). Invitation To Public Speaking. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth. Hamilton, C. (2003). Essentials of Public Speaking (5th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage. Jaffe. (2004). Introduction to Public Speaking and Culture (4th ed.). Belmont: Holly J. Allen. Jaffe. (2004). Public Speaking Concepts and Skills for a Diverse Society (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Holly J. Allen. Lucas, S. E. (2012). The Art of Public Speaking (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Lucas, S. E. (2012). The Art Of Public Speaking (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Micheal Osborn, S. O. (2003). Pubulic Speaking Instructor’s Annotated Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Rudolph F Verderber, D. D. (2008). The Challenge of Effective Speaking (15th ed.). USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Sellnow,  D. D. (2003). Public Speaking: A Process Approach Media Edition. Thonson Wadsworth.